    // Copyright (C) 2010  Davis E. King (davis@dlib.net)
    // License: Boost Software License   See LICENSE.txt for the full license.
    #ifndef DLIB_RR_TRAInER_H__
    #define DLIB_RR_TRAInER_H__

    #include "../algs.h"
    #include "function.h"
    #include "kernel.h"
    #include "empirical_kernel_map.h"
    #include "linearly_independent_subset_finder.h"
    #include "../statistics.h"
    #include "rr_trainer_abstract.h"
    #include <vector>
    #include <iostream>

    namespace dlib
    {
        template <
            typename K
            >
        class rr_trainer
        {

        public:
            typedef K kernel_type;
            typedef typename kernel_type::scalar_type scalar_type;
            typedef typename kernel_type::sample_type sample_type;
            typedef typename kernel_type::mem_manager_type mem_manager_type;
            typedef decision_function<kernel_type> trained_function_type;

            // You are getting a compiler error on this line because you supplied a non-linear or
            // sparse kernel to the rr_trainer object.  You have to use dlib::linear_kernel with this trainer.
            COMPILE_TIME_ASSERT((is_same_type<K, linear_kernel<sample_type> >::value));

            rr_trainer (
            ) :
                verbose(false),
                use_regression_loss(true),
                lambda(0)
            {
                // default lambda search list
                lams = matrix_cast<scalar_type>(logspace(-9, 2, 50));
            }

            void be_verbose (
            )
            {
                verbose = true;
            }

            void be_quiet (
            )
            {
                verbose = false;
            }

            void use_regression_loss_for_loo_cv (
            )
            {
                use_regression_loss = true;
            }

            void use_classification_loss_for_loo_cv (
            )
            {
                use_regression_loss = false;
            }

            bool will_use_regression_loss_for_loo_cv (
            ) const
            {
                return use_regression_loss;
            }

            const kernel_type get_kernel (
            ) const
            {
                return kernel_type();
            }

            void set_lambda (
                scalar_type lambda_
            )
            {
                // make sure requires clause is not broken
                DLIB_ASSERT(lambda_ >= 0,
                    "\t void rr_trainer::set_lambda()"
                    << "\n\t lambda must be greater than or equal to 0"
                    << "\n\t lambda: " << lambda
                    << "\n\t this:   " << this
                    );

                lambda = lambda_;
            }

            const scalar_type get_lambda (
            ) const
            {
                return lambda;
            }

            template <typename EXP>
            void set_search_lambdas (
                const matrix_exp<EXP>& lambdas
            )
            {
                // make sure requires clause is not broken
                DLIB_ASSERT(is_vector(lambdas) && lambdas.size() > 0 && min(lambdas) > 0,
                    "\t void rr_trainer::set_search_lambdas()"
                    << "\n\t lambdas must be a non-empty vector of values"
                    << "\n\t is_vector(lambdas): " << is_vector(lambdas)
                    << "\n\t lambdas.size():     " << lambdas.size()
                    << "\n\t min(lambdas):       " << min(lambdas)
                    << "\n\t this:   " << this
                    );

                lams = matrix_cast<scalar_type>(lambdas);
            }

            const matrix<scalar_type,0,0,mem_manager_type>& get_search_lambdas (
            ) const
            {
                return lams;
            }

            template <
                typename in_sample_vector_type,
                typename in_scalar_vector_type
                >
            const decision_function<kernel_type> train (
                const in_sample_vector_type& x,
                const in_scalar_vector_type& y
            ) const
            {
                std::vector<scalar_type> temp;
                scalar_type temp2;
                return do_train(mat(x), mat(y), false, temp, temp2);
            }

            template <
                typename in_sample_vector_type,
                typename in_scalar_vector_type
                >
            const decision_function<kernel_type> train (
                const in_sample_vector_type& x,
                const in_scalar_vector_type& y,
                std::vector<scalar_type>& loo_values
            ) const
            {
                scalar_type temp;
                return do_train(mat(x), mat(y), true, loo_values, temp);
            }

            template <
                typename in_sample_vector_type,
                typename in_scalar_vector_type
                >
            const decision_function<kernel_type> train (
                const in_sample_vector_type& x,
                const in_scalar_vector_type& y,
                std::vector<scalar_type>& loo_values,
                scalar_type& lambda_used
            ) const
            {
                return do_train(mat(x), mat(y), true, loo_values, lambda_used);
            }

        private:

            template <
                typename in_sample_vector_type,
                typename in_scalar_vector_type
                >
            const decision_function<kernel_type> do_train (
                const in_sample_vector_type& x,
                const in_scalar_vector_type& y,
                const bool output_loo_values,
                std::vector<scalar_type>& loo_values,
                scalar_type& the_lambda
            ) const
            {
                // make sure requires clause is not broken
                DLIB_ASSERT(is_learning_problem(x,y),
                    "\t decision_function rr_trainer::train(x,y)"
                    << "\n\t invalid inputs were given to this function"
                    << "\n\t is_vector(x): " << is_vector(x)
                    << "\n\t is_vector(y): " << is_vector(y)
                    << "\n\t x.size():     " << x.size()
                    << "\n\t y.size():     " << y.size()
                    );

    #ifdef ENABLE_ASSERTS
                if (get_lambda() == 0 && will_use_regression_loss_for_loo_cv() == false)
                {
                    // make sure requires clause is not broken
                    DLIB_ASSERT(is_binary_classification_problem(x,y),
                        "\t decision_function rr_trainer::train(x,y)"
                        << "\n\t invalid inputs were given to this function"
                        );
                }
    #endif

                typedef matrix<scalar_type,0,1,mem_manager_type> column_matrix_type;
                typedef matrix<scalar_type,0,0,mem_manager_type> general_matrix_type;

                const long dims = x(0).size();

                /*
                    Notes on the solution of ridge regression

                    Let A = an x.size() by dims matrix which contains all the data samples.

                    Let I = an identity matrix

                    Let C = trans(A)*A
                    Let L = trans(A)*y

                    Then the optimal w is given by:
                        w = inv(C + lambda*I) * L

                    There is a trick to compute leave one out cross validation results for many different
                    lambda values quickly.  The following paper has a detailed discussion of various
                    approaches:

                        Notes on Regularized Least Squares by Ryan M. Rifkin and Ross A. Lippert.

                        In the implementation of the rr_trainer I'm only using two simple equations
                        from the above paper.

                        First note that inv(C + lambda*I) can be computed for many different lambda
                        values in an efficient way by using an eigen decomposition of C.  So we use
                        the fact that:
                            inv(C + lambda*I) == V*inv(D + lambda*I)*trans(V)
                            where V*D*trans(V) == C

                        Also, via some simple linear algebra the above paper works out that the leave one out
                        value for a sample x(i) is equal to the following:
                            Let G = inv(C + lambda*I)
                            let val = trans(x(i))*G*x(i);

                            leave one out value for sample x(i):
                            LOOV = (trans(w)*x(i) - y(i)*val) / (1 - val)

                            leave one out error for sample x(i):
                            LOOE = loss(y(i), LOOV)

                    Finally, note that we will pretend there was a 1 appended to the end of each
                    vector in x.  We won't actually do that though because we don't want to
                    have to make a copy of all the samples.  So throughout the following code
                    I have explicitly dealt with this.
                */

                general_matrix_type C, tempm, G;
                column_matrix_type  L, tempv, w;

                // compute C and L
                for (long i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i)
                {
                    C += x(i)*trans(x(i));
                    L += y(i)*x(i);
                    tempv += x(i);
                }

                // Account for the extra 1 that we pretend is appended to x
                // Make C = [C      tempv
                //           tempv' x.size()]
                C = join_cols(join_rows(C, tempv),
                              join_rows(trans(tempv), uniform_matrix<scalar_type>(1,1, x.size())));
                L = join_cols(L, uniform_matrix<scalar_type>(1,1, sum(y)));

                eigenvalue_decomposition<general_matrix_type> eig(make_symmetric(C));
                const general_matrix_type V = eig.get_pseudo_v();
                const column_matrix_type  D = eig.get_real_eigenvalues();

                // We can save some work by pre-multiplying the x vectors by trans(V)
                // and saving the result so we don't have to recompute it over and over later.
                matrix<column_matrix_type,0,1,mem_manager_type > Vx;
                if (lambda == 0 || output_loo_values)
                {
                    // Save the transpose of V into a temporary because the subsequent matrix
                    // vector multiplies will be faster (because of better cache locality).
                    const general_matrix_type transV( colm(trans(V),range(0,dims-1))  );
                    // Remember the pretend 1 at the end of x(*).  We want to multiply trans(V)*x(*)
                    // so to do this we pull the last column off trans(V) and store it separately.
                    const column_matrix_type lastV = colm(trans(V), dims);
                    Vx.set_size(x.size());
                    for (long i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i)
                    {
                        Vx(i) = transV*x(i);
                        Vx(i) = squared(Vx(i) + lastV);
                    }
                }

                the_lambda = lambda;

                // If we need to automatically select a lambda then do so using the LOOE trick described
                // above.
                bool did_loov = false;
                scalar_type best_looe = std::numeric_limits<scalar_type>::max();
                if (lambda == 0)
                {
                    did_loov = true;

                    // Compute leave one out errors for a bunch of different lambdas and pick the best one.
                    for (long idx = 0; idx < lams.size(); ++idx)
                    {
                        // first compute G
                        tempv = 1.0/(D + lams(idx));
                        tempm = scale_columns(V,tempv);
                        G = tempm*trans(V);

                        // compute the solution w for the current lambda
                        w = G*L;

                        // make w have the same length as the x vectors.
                        const scalar_type b = w(dims);
                        w = colm(w,0,dims);

                        scalar_type looe = 0;
                        for (long i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i)
                        {
                            // perform equivalent of: val = trans(x(i))*G*x(i);
                            const scalar_type val = dot(tempv, Vx(i));
                            const scalar_type temp = (1 - val);
                            scalar_type loov;
                            if (temp != 0)
                                loov = (trans(w)*x(i) + b - y(i)*val) / temp;
                            else
                                loov = 0;

                            looe += loss(loov, y(i));
                        }

                        // Keep track of the lambda which gave the lowest looe.  If two lambdas
                        // have the same looe then pick the biggest lambda.
                        if (looe < best_looe || (looe == best_looe && lams(idx) > the_lambda))
                        {
                            best_looe = looe;
                            the_lambda = lams(idx);
                        }
                    }

                    best_looe /= x.size();
                }

                // Now perform the main training.  That is, find w.
                // first, compute G = inv(C + the_lambda*I)
                tempv = 1.0/(D + the_lambda);
                tempm = scale_columns(V,tempv);
                G = tempm*trans(V);
                w = G*L;

                // make w have the same length as the x vectors.
                const scalar_type b = w(dims);
                w = colm(w,0,dims);

                // If we haven't done this already and we are supposed to then compute the LOO error rate for
                // the current lambda and store the result in best_looe.
                if (output_loo_values)
                {
                    loo_values.resize(x.size());
                    did_loov = true;
                    best_looe = 0;
                    for (long i = 0; i < x.size(); ++i)
                    {
                        // perform equivalent of: val = trans(x(i))*G*x(i);
                        const scalar_type val = dot(tempv, Vx(i));
                        const scalar_type temp = (1 - val);
                        scalar_type loov;
                        if (temp != 0)
                            loov = (trans(w)*x(i) + b - y(i)*val) / temp;
                        else
                            loov = 0;

                        best_looe += loss(loov, y(i));
                        loo_values[i] = loov;
                    }

                    best_looe /= x.size();

                }
                else
                {
                    loo_values.clear();
                }

                if (verbose && did_loov)
                {
                    using namespace std;
                    cout << "Using lambda:             " << the_lambda << endl;
                    if (use_regression_loss)
                        cout << "LOO Mean Squared Error:   " << best_looe << endl;
                    else
                        cout << "LOO Classification Error: " << best_looe << endl;
                }

                // convert w into a proper decision function
                decision_function<kernel_type> df;
                df.alpha.set_size(1);
                df.alpha = 1;
                df.basis_vectors.set_size(1);
                df.basis_vectors(0) = w;
                df.b = -b; // don't forget about the bias we stuck onto all the vectors

                return df;
            }

            inline scalar_type loss (
                const scalar_type& a,
                const scalar_type& b
            ) const
            {
                if (use_regression_loss)
                {
                    return (a-b)*(a-b);
                }
                else
                {
                    // if a and b have the same sign then no loss
                    if (a*b >= 0)
                        return 0;
                    else
                        return 1;
                }
            }

            /*!
                CONVENTION
                    - get_lambda() == lambda
                    - get_kernel() == kernel_type()
                    - will_use_regression_loss_for_loo_cv() == use_regression_loss
                    - get_search_lambdas() == lams
            !*/

            bool verbose;
            bool use_regression_loss;

            scalar_type lambda;

            matrix<scalar_type,0,0,mem_manager_type> lams;
        };

    }

    #endif // DLIB_RR_TRAInER_H__