.. _man-calling-c-and-fortran-code:

****************************
 Calling C and Fortran Code  
****************************

Though most code can be written in Julia, there are many high-quality,
mature libraries for numerical computing already written in C and
Fortran. To allow easy use of this existing code, Julia makes it simple
and efficient to call C and Fortran functions. Julia has a "no
boilerplate" philosophy: functions can be called directly from Julia
without any "glue" code, code generation, or compilation — even from the
interactive prompt. This is accomplished just by making an appropriate call
with ``call`` syntax, which looks like an ordinary function call.

The code to be called must be available as a shared library. Most C and
Fortran libraries ship compiled as shared libraries already, but if you
are compiling the code yourself using GCC (or Clang), you will need to
use the ``-shared`` and ``-fPIC`` options. The machine instructions
generated by Julia's JIT are the same as a native C call would be, so
the resulting overhead is the same as calling a library function from C
code. (Non-library function calls in both C and Julia can be inlined and
thus may have even less overhead than calls to shared library functions.
When both libraries and executables are generated by LLVM, it is
possible to perform whole-program optimizations that can even optimize
across this boundary, but Julia does not yet support that. In the
future, however, it may do so, yielding even greater performance gains.)

Shared libraries and functions are referenced by a tuple of the 
form ``(:function, "library")`` or ``("function", "library")`` where ``function``
is the C-exported function name. ``library`` refers to the shared library
name: shared libraries available in the (platform-specific) load path
will be resolved by name, and if necessary a direct path may be specified.

A function name may be used alone in place of the tuple (just
``:function`` or ``"function"``). In this case the name is resolved within
the current process. This form can be used to call C library functions,
functions in the Julia runtime, or functions in an application linked to
Julia.

Finally, you can use ``ccall`` to actually generate a call to the
library function. Arguments to ``ccall`` are as follows:

1. (:function, "library") pair (must be a constant, but see below).
2. Return type, which may be any bits type, including ``Int32``,
   ``Int64``, ``Float64``, or ``Ptr{T}`` for any type parameter ``T``,
   indicating a pointer to values of type ``T``, or ``Ptr{Void}`` for
   ``void*`` "untyped pointer" values.
3. A tuple of input types, like those allowed for the return type.
   The input types must be written as a literal tuple, not a tuple-valued
   variable or expression.
4. The following arguments, if any, are the actual argument values
   passed to the function.

As a complete but simple example, the following calls the ``clock``
function from the standard C library::

    julia> t = ccall( (:clock, "libc"), Int32, ())
    2292761

    julia> t
    2292761

    julia> typeof(ans)
    Int32

``clock`` takes no arguments and returns an ``Int32``. One common gotcha
is that a 1-tuple must be written with a trailing comma. For
example, to call the ``getenv`` function to get a pointer to the value
of an environment variable, one makes a call like this::

    julia> path = ccall( (:getenv, "libc"), Ptr{Uint8}, (Ptr{Uint8},), "SHELL")
    Ptr{Uint8} @0x00007fff5fbffc45

    julia> bytestring(path)
    "/bin/bash"

Note that the argument type tuple must be written as ``(Ptr{Uint8},)``,
rather than ``(Ptr{Uint8})``. This is because ``(Ptr{Uint8})`` is just
``Ptr{Uint8}``, rather than a 1-tuple containing ``Ptr{Uint8}``::

    julia> (Ptr{Uint8})
    Ptr{Uint8}

    julia> (Ptr{Uint8},)
    (Ptr{Uint8},)

In practice, especially when providing reusable functionality, one
generally wraps ``ccall`` uses in Julia functions that set up arguments
and then check for errors in whatever manner the C or Fortran function
indicates them, propagating to the Julia caller as exceptions. This is
especially important since C and Fortran APIs are notoriously
inconsistent about how they indicate error conditions. For example, the
``getenv`` C library function is wrapped in the following Julia function
in
`env.jl <https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia/blob/master/base/env.jl>`_::

    function getenv(var::String)
      val = ccall( (:getenv, "libc"),
                  Ptr{Uint8}, (Ptr{Uint8},), bytestring(var))
      if val == C_NULL
        error("getenv: undefined variable: ", var)
      end
      bytestring(val)
    end

The C ``getenv`` function indicates an error by returning ``NULL``, but
other standard C functions indicate errors in various different ways,
including by returning -1, 0, 1 and other special values. This wrapper
throws an exception clearly indicating the problem if the caller tries
to get a non-existent environment variable::

    julia> getenv("SHELL")
    "/bin/bash"

    julia> getenv("FOOBAR")
    getenv: undefined variable: FOOBAR

Here is a slightly more complex example that discovers the local
machine's hostname::

    function gethostname()
      hostname = Array(Uint8, 128)
      ccall( (:gethostname, "libc"), Int32,
            (Ptr{Uint8}, Uint),
            hostname, length(hostname))
      return bytestring(convert(Ptr{Uint8}, hostname))
    end

This example first allocates an array of bytes, then calls the C library
function ``gethostname`` to fill the array in with the hostname, takes a
pointer to the hostname buffer, and converts the pointer to a Julia
string, assuming that it is a NUL-terminated C string. It is common for
C libraries to use this pattern of requiring the caller to allocate
memory to be passed to the callee and filled in. Allocation of memory
from Julia like this is generally accomplished by creating an
uninitialized array and passing a pointer to its data to the C function.

When calling a Fortran function, all inputs must be passed by reference.

A prefix ``&`` is used to indicate that a pointer to a scalar argument
should be passed instead of the scalar value itself. The following
example computes a dot product using a BLAS function.

::

    function compute_dot(DX::Vector, DY::Vector)
      assert(length(DX) == length(DY))
      n = length(DX)
      incx = incy = 1
      product = ccall( (:ddot_, "libLAPACK"),
                      Float64,
                      (Ptr{Int32}, Ptr{Float64}, Ptr{Int32}, Ptr{Float64}, Ptr{Int32}),
                      &n, DX, &incx, DY, &incy)
      return product
    end

The meaning of prefix ``&`` is not quite the same as in C. In
particular, any changes to the referenced variables will not be visible
in Julia. However, it will
never cause any harm for called functions to attempt such modifications
(that is, writing through the passed pointers). Since this ``&`` is not
a real address operator, it may be used with any syntax, such as
``&0`` or ``&f(x)``.

Note that no C header files are used anywhere in the process. Currently,
it is not possible to pass structs and other non-primitive types from
Julia to C libraries. However, C functions that generate and use opaque
structs types by passing around pointers to them can return such values
to Julia as ``Ptr{Void}``, which can then be passed to other C functions
as ``Ptr{Void}``. Memory allocation and deallocation of such objects
must be handled by calls to the appropriate cleanup routines in the
libraries being used, just like in any C program.

Mapping C Types to Julia
------------------------

Julia automatically inserts calls to the ``convert`` function to convert
each argument to the specified type. For example, the following call::

    ccall( (:foo, "libfoo"), Void, (Int32, Float64),
          x, y)

will behave as if the following were written::

    ccall( (:foo, "libfoo"), Void, (Int32, Float64),
          convert(Int32, x), convert(Float64, y))

When a scalar value is passed with ``&`` as an argument of type
``Ptr{T}``, the value will first be converted to type ``T``.

Array conversions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

When an ``Array`` is passed to C as a ``Ptr`` argument, it is
"converted" simply by taking the address of the first element. This is
done in order to avoid copying arrays unnecessarily, and to tolerate the
slight mismatches in pointer types that are often encountered in C APIs
(for example, passing a ``Float64`` array to a function that operates on
uninterpreted bytes).

Therefore, if an ``Array`` contains data in the wrong format, it will
have to be explicitly converted using a call such as ``int32(a)``.

Type correspondences
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

On all systems we currently support, basic C/C++ value types may be
translated to Julia types as follows. Every C type also has a corresponding
Julia type with the same name, prefixed by C. This can help for writing portable code (and remembering that an int in C is not the same as an Int in Julia).

**System-independent:**

+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``bool`` (8 bits)      | ``Cbool``         | ``Bool``                       |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``signed char``        |                   | ``Int8``                       |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``unsigned char``      | ``Cuchar``        | ``Uint8``                      |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``short``              | ``Cshort``        | ``Int16``                      |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``unsigned short``     | ``Cushort``       | ``Uint16``                     |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``int``                | ``Cint``          | ``Int32``                      |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``unsigned int``       | ``Cuint``         | ``Uint32``                     |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``long long``          | ``Clonglong``     | ``Int64``                      |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``unsigned long long`` | ``Culonglong``    | ``Uint64``                     |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``float``              | ``Cfloat``        | ``Float32``                    |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``double``             | ``Cdouble``       | ``Float64``                    |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``ptrdiff_t``          | ``Cptrdiff_t``    | ``Int``                        |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``ssize_t``            | ``Cssize_t``      | ``Int``                        |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``size_t``             | ``Csize_t``       | ``Uint``                       |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``complex float``      | ``Ccomplex_float`` (future addition)               |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``complex double``     | ``Ccomplex_double`` (future addition)              |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``void``               |                   | ``Void``                       |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``void*``              |                   | ``Ptr{Void}``                  |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``char*`` (or ``char[]``, e.g. a string)   | ``Ptr{Uint8}``                 |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``char**`` (or ``*char[]``)                | ``Ptr{Ptr{Uint8}}``            |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``struct T*`` (where T represents an       | ``Ptr{T}`` (call using         |
| appropriately defined bits type)           | &variable_name in the          |
|                                            | parameter list)                |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``struct T`` (where T represents  an       | ``T`` (call using              |
| appropriately defined bits type)           | &variable_name in the          |
|                                            | parameter list)                |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+
| ``jl_value_t*`` (any Julia Type)           | ``Ptr{Any}``                   |
+------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------+

*Note:* the ``bool`` type is only defined by C++, where it is 8 bits
wide. In C, however, ``int`` is often used for boolean values. Since
``int`` is 32-bits wide (on all supported systems), there is some
potential for confusion here.

Julia's ``Char`` type is 32 bits, which is not the same as the wide
character type (``wchar_t`` or ``wint_t``) on all platforms.

A C function declared to return ``void`` will give ``nothing`` in Julia.

**System-dependent:**

======================  ==============  =======
``char``                ``Cchar``       ``Int8`` (x86, x86_64)

                                        ``Uint8`` (powerpc, arm)
``long``                ``Clong``       ``Int`` (UNIX)

                                        ``Int32`` (Windows)
``unsigned long``       ``Culong``      ``Uint`` (UNIX)

                                        ``Uint32`` (Windows)
``wchar_t``             ``Cwchar_t``    ``Int32`` (UNIX)

                                        ``Uint16`` (Windows)
======================  ==============  =======

For string arguments (``char*``) the Julia type should be ``Ptr{Uint8}``,
not ``ASCIIString``. C functions that take an argument of the type ``char**``
can be called by using a ``Ptr{Ptr{Uint8}}`` type within Julia. For example, 
C functions of the form::

    int main(int argc, char **argv);

can be called via the following Julia code::

    argv = [ "a.out", "arg1", "arg2" ]
    ccall(:main, Int32, (Int32, Ptr{Ptr{Uint8}}), length(argv), argv)


Accessing Data through a Pointer
--------------------------------
The following methods are described as "unsafe" because they can cause Julia
to terminate abruptly or corrupt arbitrary process memory due to a bad pointer
or type declaration.

Given a ``Ptr{T}``, the contents of type ``T`` can generally be copied from
the referenced memory into a Julia object using ``unsafe_load(ptr, [index])``. The
index argument is optional (default is 1), and performs 1-based indexing. This
function is intentionally similar to the behavior of ``getindex()`` and ``setindex!()``
(e.g. ``[]`` access syntax).

The return value will be a new object initialized
to contain a copy of the contents of the referenced memory. The referenced
memory can safely be freed or released.

If ``T`` is ``Any``, then the memory is assumed to contain a reference to
a Julia object (a ``jl_value_t*``), the result will be a reference to this object,
and the object will not be copied. You must be careful in this case to ensure
that the object was always visible to the garbage collector (pointers do not
count, but the new reference does) to ensure the memory is not prematurely freed.
Note that if the object was not originally allocated by Julia, the new object
will never be finalized by Julia's garbage collector.  If the ``Ptr`` itself
is actually a ``jl_value_t*``, it can be converted back to a Julia object
reference by ``unsafe_pointer_to_objref(ptr)``.  (Julia values ``v``
can be converted to ``jl_value_t*`` pointers, as ``Ptr{Void}``, by calling
``pointer_from_objref(v)``.)

The reverse operation (writing data to a Ptr{T}), can be performed using
``unsafe_store!(ptr, value, [index])``.  Currently, this is only supported
for bitstypes or other pointer-free (``isbits``) immutable types.

Any operation that throws an error is probably currently unimplemented
and should be posted as a bug so that it can be resolved.

If the pointer of interest is a plain-data array (bitstype or immutable), the
function ``pointer_to_array(ptr,dims,[own])`` may be more useful. The final
parameter should be true if Julia should "take ownership" of the underlying
buffer and call ``free(ptr)`` when the returned ``Array`` object is finalized.
If the ``own`` parameter is omitted or false, the caller must ensure the
buffer remains in existence until all access is complete.


Garbage Collection Safety
-------------------------
When passing data to a ccall, it is best to avoid using the ``pointer()``
function. Instead define a convert method and pass the variables directly to
the ccall. ccall automatically arranges that all of its arguments will be
preserved from garbage collection until the call returns. If a C API will
store a reference to memory allocated by Julia, after the ccall returns, you
must arrange that the object remains visible to the garbage collector. The
suggested way to handle this is to make a global variable of type 
``Array{Any,1}`` to hold these values, until C interface notifies you that
it is finished with them.

Whenever you have created a pointer to Julia data, you must ensure the original data
exists until you are done with using the pointer. Many methods in Julia such as
``unsafe_load()`` and ``bytestring()`` make copies of data instead of taking ownership
of the buffer, so that it is safe to free (or alter) the original data without
affecting Julia. A notable exception is ``pointer_to_array()`` which, for performance
reasons, shares (or can be told to take ownership of) the underlying buffer.

The garbage collector does not guarantee any order of finalization. That is, if ``a`` 
contained a reference to ``b`` and both ``a`` and ``b`` are due for garbage 
collection, there is no guarantee that ``b`` would be finalized after ``a``. If
proper finalization of ``a`` depends on ``b`` being valid, it must be handled in 
other ways.


Non-constant Function Specifications
------------------------------------

A ``(name, library)`` function specification must be a constant expression.
However, it is possible to use computed values as function names by staging
through ``eval`` as follows::

    @eval ccall(($(string("a","b")),"lib"), ...

This expression constructs a name using ``string``, then substitutes this
name into a new ``ccall`` expression, which is then evaluated. Keep in mind that
``eval`` only operates at the top level, so within this expression local
variables will not be available (unless their values are substituted with
``$``). For this reason, ``eval`` is typically only used to form top-level
definitions, for example when wrapping libraries that contain many
similar functions.

Indirect Calls
--------------

The first argument to ``ccall`` can also be an expression evaluated at
run time. In this case, the expression must evaluate to a ``Ptr``,
which will be used as the address of the native function to call. This
behavior occurs when the first ``ccall`` argument contains references
to non-constants, such as local variables or function arguments.

Calling Convention
------------------

The second argument to ``ccall`` can optionally be a calling convention
specifier (immediately preceding return type). Without any specifier,
the platform-default C calling convention is used. Other supported 
conventions are: ``stdcall``, ``cdecl``, ``fastcall``, and ``thiscall``.
For example (from base/libc.jl)::

    hn = Array(Uint8, 256)
    err=ccall(:gethostname, stdcall, Int32, (Ptr{Uint8}, Uint32), hn, length(hn))

For more information, please see the `LLVM Language Reference`_.

.. _LLVM Language Reference: http://llvm.org/docs/LangRef.html#calling-conventions

Accessing Global Variables
--------------------------

Global variables exported by native libraries can be accessed by name using the
``cglobal`` function. The arguments to ``cglobal`` are a symbol specification
identical to that used by ``ccall``, and a type describing the value stored in
the variable::

    julia> cglobal((:errno,:libc), Int32)
    Ptr{Int32} @0x00007f418d0816b8

The result is a pointer giving the address of the value. The value can be
manipulated through this pointer using ``unsafe_load`` and ``unsafe_store``.

Passing Julia Callback Functions to C
-------------------------------------

It is possible to pass Julia functions to native functions that accept function
pointer arguments. A classic example is the standard C library ``qsort`` function,
declared as::

    void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,
               int(*compare)(const void *a, const void *b));

The ``base`` argument is a pointer to an array of length ``nmemb``, with elements of
``size`` bytes each. ``compare`` is a callback function which takes pointers to two
elements ``a`` and ``b`` and returns an integer less/greater than zero if ``a`` should
appear before/after ``b`` (or zero if any order is permitted). Now, suppose that we
have a 1d array ``A`` of values in Julia that we want to sort using the ``qsort``
function (rather than Julia’s built-in sort function). Before we worry about calling
``qsort`` and passing arguments, we need to write a comparison function that works for
some arbitrary type T::

    function mycompare{T}(a_::Ptr{T}, b_::Ptr{T})
        a = unsafe_load(a_)
        b = unsafe_load(b_)
        return convert(Cint, a < b ? -1 : a > b ? +1 : 0)
    end

Notice that we have to be careful about the return type: ``qsort`` expects a function
returning a C ``int``, so we must be sure to return ``Cint`` via a call to ``convert``.

In order to pass this function to C, we obtain its address using the function
``cfunction``::

    const mycompare_c = cfunction(mycompare, Cint, (Ptr{Cdouble}, Ptr{Cdouble}))

``cfunction`` accepts three arguments: the Julia function (``mycompare``), the return
type (``Cint``), and a tuple of the argument types, in this case to sort an array of
``Cdouble`` (Float64) elements.

The final call to ``qsort`` looks like this::

    A = [1.3, -2.7, 4.4, 3.1]
    ccall(:qsort, Void, (Ptr{Cdouble}, Csize_t, Csize_t, Ptr{Void}),
          A, length(A), sizeof(eltype(A)), mycompare_c)

After this executes, ``A`` is changed to the sorted array ``[ -2.7, 1.3, 3.1, 4.4]``.
Note that Julia knows how to convert an array into a ``Ptr{Cdouble}``, how to compute
the size of a type in bytes (identical to C’s ``sizeof`` operator), and so on.
For fun, try inserting a ``println("mycompare($a,$b)")`` line into ``mycompare``, which
will allow you to see the comparisons that ``qsort`` is performing (and to verify that
it is really calling the Julia function that you passed to it).

More About Callbacks
--------------------

For more details on how to pass callbacks to C libraries, see this
`blog post <http://julialang.org/blog/2013/05/callback/>`_.

C++
---

Limited support for C++ is provided by the `Cpp <http://github.com/timholy/Cpp.jl>`_ 
and `Clang <https://github.com/ihnorton/Clang.jl>`_ packages.

Handling Platform Variations
----------------------------

When dealing with platform libraries, it is often necessary to provide special cases
for various platforms. The variable ``OS_NAME`` can be used to write these special
cases. Additionally, there are several macros intended to make this easier:
``@windows``, ``@unix``, ``@linux``, and ``@osx``. Note that linux and osx are mutually 
exclusive subsets of unix. Their usage takes the form of a ternary conditional
operator, as demonstrated in the following examples.

Simple blocks::

    ccall( (@windows? :_fopen : :fopen), ...)

Complex blocks::

    @linux? (
             begin
                 some_complicated_thing(a)
             end
           : begin
                 some_different_thing(a)
             end
           )

Chaining (parentheses optional, but recommended for readability)::

    @windows? :a : (@osx? :b : :c)
